> [!llm] ChatGPT synopsis of the history of the beef cattle industry in Hawaii: > > The beef cattle industry in Hawaii traces its roots to the late 18th century. In 1793, Captain George Vancouver gifted King Kamehameha I a few cattle. To ensure their population growth, Kamehameha placed a kapu (taboo) on the hunting of these cattle, allowing them to roam and multiply freely. By the early 19th century, their numbers had grown significantly, leading to issues like crop damage and threats to public safety. > > Recognizing the potential of cattle as a resource, the kapu was lifted in 1830, and the first commercial ventures began. To manage the herds and develop the industry, vaqueros (Mexican cowboys) were brought in from California in the 1830s. They trained Hawaiians in cattle handling, and these skilled paniolo (Hawaiian cowboys) became crucial to the industry's growth. > > Throughout the 19th century, ranching expanded on the Big Island, especially in areas like Waimea and Kohala. With the annexation of Hawaii to the U.S. in 1898, the industry faced competition from the U.S. mainland. However, island ranchers adapted by focusing on quality over quantity. > > In the 20th century, Hawaii's beef cattle industry faced challenges like fluctuating market demands and increased transportation costs. To adapt, some ranchers shifted towards sustainable practices, grass-fed beef production, and direct marketing to consumers. > > Today, the legacy of the paniolo lives on in Hawaii, and the state's ranching industry continues to evolve, blending tradition with modern techniques and sustainability practices. --- The beef cattle industry in Hawaii, as well as globally, has experienced several significant periods of change. Here are some key eras of transformation: ### Introduction and Kapu Period (1793-1830) Captain George Vancouver introduced cattle to Hawaii in 1793. King Kamehameha I placed a kapu (taboo) on these cattle, preventing them from being hunted. This allowed the cattle to proliferate unchecked for nearly four decades. > [!quote] @society_1850 > CATTLE. —The first cattle were landed by Capt. Vancouver, from California. He landed first a bull and cow, they were too weak to to stand up; he hired a canoe to take them on shore where they could get grass. The bull died in a few days; the remaining cattle, healthy but thin, were landed at Kealakeakua. The loss of the bull was a misfortune which prevented any increase. He had but one hope. Two of the young cows proved to be with calf, and if one should bring forth a male, the increase might safely be effected. Fortunately his hopes were realized. At the request of Vancouver, Kamehameha tabooed the killing of cattle for ten years - except the males should become too numerous. Then the King might kill for his own, the Queen's and Chiefs' eating. > > The women were not allowed to eat of the same animal as the King and chief - they were to have a separate animal. Few cattle were killed until after 1830; they were killed mostly for their hides; they were greatly thinned off, and being so much harrassed \[sic], retreated farther up the mountains. >The first cattle brought to the Island of Molokai in 1830 were put ashore on the grassy plain at the village of Paalau. A “tabu” by ‘the island chief against killing cattle shortly after their arrival prevented all slaughter. Sheep and goats were introduced a few years later and were also protected by a “tabu.” Springs near the village of Paala! supplied the only livestock water for the large arid area. Under a favorable environment all livestock multiplied rapidly. As numbers increased, they grazed all the grass within several miles of the springs, with the result that for several miles above Paalau a dry, eroded, barren area developed as the pili grass was destroyed. Deep gullies developed and fertile topsoil washed away. For example, an artificial 500-acre saltwater fishpond maintained by the natives along the low lying coastline immediately below Paalau was filled to a depth of 4 feet with a part of the fertile topsoil from the 20 square miles tributary area. > >Carlson, N. K. (1952). [Three grasses’ struggle for supremacy on the island of Molokai](https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/648484/4465-4345-1-PB.pdf?sequence=1. Journal of Range Management, 5(1), 8-12. ### Paniolo Era (1830s-1898) With the kapu lifted, the first ranching ventures began. The introduction of vaqueros from California in the 1830s marked the birth of the paniolo (Hawaiian cowboy) culture. This period saw the establishment of large ranches, especially on the Big Island. #### Whaling 1820s - 1860s >The grazier, who supplied beef, depended upon the demand of the shipping for a market; > https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-hawaiian-gazette-small-farm-producti/112148899/ ### Annexation and Modernization (Late 19th - Early 20th Century) The annexation of Hawaii by the U.S. in 1898 brought new challenges, including competition from the mainland beef industry. Hawaii began to modernize its ranching techniques and infrastructure during this period. There was also a greater emphasis on breed improvement. #### 1890s > [!quote] @treasurybureauofstatistics_1901 >IRRIGATION. \[From report by Department of Agriculture, 1900.] There are many estates on Hawaii and several on Maui where the rainfall was formerly abundant for all crop purposes, but in recent years droughts have prevailed which have entailed severe losses. ==These droughts have been attributed directly to the rapid deforestation going on around them.== ==In 1892-93 the districts of Hamakua and Kohala, on Hawaii, suffered severely from the protracted droughts, the springs and natural reservoirs in the gulches dried up, and water for animals and domestic uses was difficult to procure, In some instances it had to be shipped from Honolulu in barrels.== The cause of these droughts is accredited by all of the residents of these districts to the unrestricted roaming of cattle in the forests, by which tens of thousands of acres of land, formerly a dense forest, are now reduced to it barren desert, useless alike to the grazier and planter. #### 1909 > [!quote] @wilcox_1909 >The annual consumption of beef in the Islands is about 14.000 carcasses and the demands for beef'are increasing quite rapidly. Thus far the ranches have been able to produce all the beef that is required, and the increased demands for beef can be met by better management of ranches, particularly in producing larger quantities of cultivated -forage. ### World Wars and Economic Shifts (Mid 20th Century) The two World Wars influenced the beef industry in various ways, including fluctuating demand, changes in labor force, and shifts in transportation dynamics. The post-war period saw the growth of tourism in Hawaii, which impacted land use and market priorities for the beef industry. #### 1940s This jump had greater significance than a mere increase in meat supplies. Practically all island cattle had been shipped directly from the ranges to the slaughter plants without supplemental feeding and fattening. #### 1950s > [!quote] @calhoun_1960 >Consumption of ==beef per person in the Hawaiian Islands has risen rapidly in the last decade==. ==Production in the islands has increased slowly, but inshipments, mostly from the United States mainland, have doubled and recently made up nearly half of the total supply==. The number of "beef cattle in the islands reached a record high of l60,000 in 1958; hut this represented only a gradual rise from 141,500 in 1948. > >Cattle marketing in Hawaii still faces serious problems . ==Nearly all the cattle are raised on the island of Hawaii and the outlying islands, hut most of the slaughtering is done at Honolulu, on the island of Oahu==. Live cattle therefore are shipped, mostly by barge, from the islands to Honolulu. Many of these cattle, raised on open mountainside ranges and therefore semiwild, are sent to slaughter with little or no fattening. Bruising and other injuries to cattle on the way to market have caused severe losses, reducing the quality of carcasses and the returns to growers through price discounts because of the damage. > >It appears possible that ==the problem of bruising and injuries would be alleviated by establishment of slaughterhouses and meat coolers on the island where cattle are grown==. Carcasses then would be cooled and shipped under refrigeration to Honolulu. It would not be difficult to install coolers on the barges. Meat thus could be shipped without the injuries and losses incident to herding the cattle to barges or ships, loading them, unloading them, and driving and hauling them to slaughter in Honolulu. Cooling and shipping of carcasses already is practiced on the island of Maui, and the chilled beef is shipped by airplane from that island to Honolulu. A change to slaughter in the producing islands, however, doubtless would involve new problems that would have to be weighed against the present difficulties. > [!quote] @calhoun_1960 > 1952, when a drought in the islands caused some liquidation of local herds. During the next year (1953); island marketings dropped, and the supply from the mainland jumped from around 7 million to 13 million pounds > >In the 5 years 1953-57, the island civilian population increased 18 percent, from 465,000 to 551,000 persons. During the same time, the rate of use of beef went up 3^ percent, from 55 "bo 7^- pounds per person. The net result was that, during these 5 years following 1952, the total civilian use of beef in Hawaii jumped 60 percent, from 26 to 41 million pounds per year. #### 1960s Maritime strikes, among other concerns, leads to work on emergency cattle feed approaches [@furr.otagaki_1963] > [!quote] @furr.otagaki_1963 > The non-range or feed-lot type of livestock industry in Hawaii depends to a large extent on imported feedstuffs to meet the greater proportions of the nutrient needs for the production of beef. ==During normal times, inshipment of feedstuffs from the continental United States and from foreign countries provides adequate supply for day-to-day operation. During periods of emergencies, such as a drought, a maritime strike, or a nuclear or conventional war, Hawaii may be cut off from sources of supply of a great proportion of its food and other essentials. The livestock industry must be pre pared to face the problem of feed shortage, because the State's warehouse and grain storage facilities are limited to handle only a 60- to 90-day supply of feedstuffs.== This circular has been prepared to help meet some emergencies, including prolonged drought conditions on the range, with a minimum loss of production. Suggested emergency rations have been categorized for two classes of livestock, (1) pen fed beef cattle and (2) range beef cattle. The producer of these animals should try to use maximum amounts of all available local feeds to compensate for the shortage of normal imports of grains arid protein concentrates. #### 1970s >[!quote] @mark.lucas_1982, p. 21 >livestock industries which produce almost entirely for domestic consumption, have roughly kept pace with state population growth, except for beef, where production has leveled off since 1970. >The largest livestock industries are cattle and milk. The 1980 sales volumes were about the same, with beef and veal sales of $28.1 million and milk sales of $27 .1 million (Table 7) . ==Since 1970, the market share of Hawaii produced beef and veal has gradually dropped from 48 percent to an estimated 31 percent in 1980==. Mainland-grown beef and foreign imports supply the balance of Hawaii's market demand. [@mark.lucas_1982, p. 17] ![[1970s livestock.png]] >[!quote] @mark.lucas_1982, p. 24 >With an increasing state population, the percentage share of the Hawaii market supplied by the ==local industry has gradually declined from 51 percent in 1963 to 31 percent in 1980==. > [!quote] @mark.lucas_1982, p. 24 > Continued viability of the industry is important in that the 1.3 million acres of grazing land utilized is suitable for few alternative uses. >[!quote] @mark.lucas_1982, p. 24 >The cattle industry considers the following constraints to be the leading bottlenecks to growth and increased viability: (1) land and water availability at reasonable costs and terms; (2) lack of knowledge concerning the options available for increasing efficiency and returns through changes in slaughtering, processing, distribution and marketing; (3) insufficient information on alternatives for improving existing interisland transportation of cattle and beef, including consideration of outer-island feeding facilities; and (4) lack of knowledge on how to improve pasture so that better cattle nutrition and increased weight gains can be attained before animals are put in feedlots. Early 1980s industry analysis (process outlined in @mark.lucas_1983) determined the following *inter alia* problem areas (rank): land (1), water (1), handling (2), marketing (2), transportation (3) #### 1990s In 1995 Hawaii imported 91,000 and exported 32,7000 cattle [@forde.etal_1998]. ### Sustainability and Grass-Fed Movement (Late 20th - 21st Century) With growing global awareness of sustainable agriculture and the benefits of grass-fed beef, many Hawaii ranches began shifting towards these practices. Hawaii's unique ecosystem made it an ideal place for producing high-quality, grass-fed beef. The trend also catered to the rising demand for locally sourced, sustainable products. #### 2010s > [!quote] @asem-hiablie.etal_2018 > A comprehensive life cycle assessment of the US beef value chain requires the collection of region-specific data for accurate characterization of the country’s diverse production practices. Cattle production in Hawaii is very different from the rest of the country due to its unique ecosystem and geographic location. A survey of cattle producers provided information on herd size and characteristics, grazing management, forage and feed sources, and marketing. Ranch survey responses represented 44% of the state’s beef cows with operation sizes varying from 5 to 10,000 cows. Most cows (79%) were maintained on operations that finished at least some of their cattle, and the majority of those operations finished cattle on forage without concentrate feeds. Cattle were kept on natural pastures ranging in size from 16 to 52,610 ha per ranch with a stocking rate of 2.4 ha/cow on cow-calf operations and 2.0 ha/animal on operations that included older growing animals. Common forage species were Panicum maximum (guinea or green panic grass), Pennisetum clandestinum (kikuyugrass), Digitaria eriantha (pangola or digitgrass), and Trifolium repens (white clover). Reported cow and finished cattle BW were 498 ± 52 kg and 493 ± 75 kg, respectively. More ranchers marketed their beef cattle through wholesalers or distributors (34%) rather than directly to consumers (24%), retailers (20%), or other channels (17%). ==Marketing under grass-fed certification was reported by 39% of ranches==. Information obtained is being used to define management characteristics for modeling production systems and performing a comprehensive assessment of the sustainability of beef cattle production. #### 2020s Decision support tools can help Hawai‘i cattle producers analyze the potential returns and risks from various retained ownership alternatives. @feuz_2022 explain a method for reducing uncertainty with cattle prices when sales occur months in the future. ### Current Trends and Challenges Today, the beef industry in Hawaii faces several challenges, including the high cost of production, competition from imported beef, and land-use pressures. However, there's also an increased emphasis on local food security, value-added products, and direct-to-consumer sales. Throughout its history, Hawaii's beef industry has shown resilience and adaptability, reflecting both the island's unique culture and broader global trends. #### Packing Industry Consolidation #### Drought & Climate Change > [!quote] @adhikari.etal_2022 > The agriculture and livestock industries, particularly the dairy and beef subsectors in Hawaii, are ==vulnerable to climate changes as higher temperatures and less rainfall will have adverse effects on cattle==. The findings in this study demonstrated how both observed and projected changes in climate ==support the development of long-term strategies for breeding and holistic livestock management practices to adapt== to changing climate conditions. > [!quote] @frazier.etal_2022 >During drought, ranchers lose pasture and forage resources, which can force them to purchase expensive supplemental feed and, under more severe conditions, reduce herd size. These responses, along with increased cattle mortality and reduced calving rates, lead to large revenue losses with consequences for livelihoods and industry sustainability. For example, the 1980–1981 drought resulted in $1.4 million in losses for Hawai‘i-based farmers and ranchers [11]. ==During the 2000–2002 drought, all counties were designated as primary disaster areas by the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture, which requires at least eight consecutive weeks of the Severe Drought (D2) level on the USDM (Figure 2); statewide cattle losses alone were estimated at $9 million== [11]. ==Between 2008 and 2016, the state lost approximately $44.5 million in cattle production and more than 20,000 head of cattle due to drought==. ==Recovery to 2008 levels was estimated to not occur until 2029 (assuming no additional drought-related disasters), with Hawai‘i continuing to lose $4–6 million dollars in annual production== (M. Thorne, University of Hawai‘i, written communication, 1 August 2019). Converting pasture to managed eucalyptus forest can significantly increase soil carbon stock and offset non-renewable energy use and carbon emissions associated with wood production, providing a substantial climate change mitigation service. In ‘Carbon balance implications of land use change from pasture to managed eucalyptus forest in Hawaii’, [@crow.etal_2016] reported that the net climate change mitigation of managed forests is influenced by the balance between carbon sequestration and non-renewable carbon emissions. In this study, ==the conversion of pasture to eucalyptus forest resulted in a significant increase in soil carbon stock. However, the overall climate change mitigation was mainly driven by the tree biomass carbon, offsetting non-renewable energy use and emissions associated with wood production==. This system also provided opportunities for biofuel and bioenergy products to replace fossil fuel products. ##### Suitability Mapping for Forage-Finished Beef Production Using GIS Technology https://rangelandsgateway.org/suitability-maps-forage-finished-beef-production-hawai #### Genomic Studies Genome-wide association studies have identified genetic markers for cattle production and reproduction traits. @adhikari.etal_2023 collected and genotyped blood samples w from 400 cattle in Hawai'i in a genome-wide association study for carcass weight in pasture-finished beef cattle in Hawai’i. Genes were identified that had associated with carcass-related traits, growth, and feed intake, aligning with previous studies showing gene correlation with carcass weight and related traits. ==These genes could be candidate genes for improving carcass yield and productivity in pasture-finished beef cattle==, with a potential implication being the reduction of environmental impacts through reduced resource use. [Genome-wide association studies](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome-wide_association_studies "Definition of Genome-wide association studies") ([GWAS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome-wide_association_studies "Genome-wide association studies")) have identified genetic markers for cattle production and reproduction traits. Several publications have reported [Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_Nucleotide_Polymorphisms "Definition of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms") (SNPs) for carcass-related traits in cattle, but these studies were rarely conducted in pasture-finished beef cattle. [@adhikari.etal_2023] used Four models for the [GWAS](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome-wide_association_studies "Genome-wide association studies") analysis: [General Linear Model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Linear_Model "Definition of General Linear Model") ([GLM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Linear_Model "General Linear Model")), the [Mixed Linear Model](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_linear_model "Definition of Mixed Linear Model") ([MLM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_linear_model "Mixed Linear Model")), the Fixed and Random Model Circulating Probability Unification (FarmCPU), the Bayesian-Information and Linkage-Disequilibrium Iteratively Nested Keyway (BLINK). Their results indicated that the two multi-locus models, FarmCPU and BLINK, outperformed single-locus models, [GLM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Linear_Model "General Linear Model") and [MLM](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_linear_model "Mixed Linear Model"), in beef herds in this study. The significant [SNPs](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_Nucleotide_Polymorphisms "Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms") were mapped to genes such as EIF5, RGS20, TCEA1, LYPLA1, and MRPL15, which were previously reported to be associated with carcass-related traits, growth, and feed intake in several tropical cattle breeds